1. INTRODUCTION
This note deals with various forms by which
communication can be achieved among
people. Human spoken and written languages
can be described as a system of symbols
(sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars
(rules) by which the symbols are
manipulated. The word "language" is
also used to refer to common properties of
languages. Language learning is normal in
human childhood. Most human languages use
patterns of sound or gesture for symbols
which enable communication with others around
them.
There are thousands of human languages, and
these seem to share certain
properties, even though many shared
properties have exceptions.
There is no defined line between a language
and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich
is credited as saying that "a language
is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed
languages such as Esperanto, programming
languages, and various mathematical
formalisms are not necessarily restricted to
the properties shared by human languages in
communication.
2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE NOTE
On completion of this note, you should be
able to:
· List different types of
communication
· Explain what verbal, non
verbal and visual communications are
· Enumerate other types of
communication
· Discuss interaction between
verbal and non verbal communication
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types of communication
There are three major parts in human face to
face communication which are body
language, voice tonality, and words.
According to the research:
· 55% of
impact is determined by body language—postures, gestures, and eye
contact,
20
· 38% by
the tone of voice, and
· 7% by
the content or the words used in the communication process.
Although the exact percentage of influence
may differ from variables such as the listener
and the speaker, communication as a whole
strives for the same goal and thus, in some
cases, can be universal. System of signals,
such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch,
gestures or written symbols which communicate
thoughts or feelings.
If a language is
about communicating with signals, voice,
sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can
animal communications be considered as a
language? Animals do not have a written form
of a language, but use a language to
communicate with each another. In that sense, an
animal communication can be considered as a
separate language. Three forms of
communication are:
· Verbal Communication
· Non-Verbal Communication
· Visual communication
3.2 Verbal or Dialogue communication
A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation
between two or more entities. The etymological
origins of the word do not necessarily convey
the way in which people have come to use
the word, with some confusion between the
prefix and the prefix leading to the
assumption that a dialogue is necessarily
between only two parties.
The basis of communication is the interaction
between people. Verbal communication is
one way for people to communicate
face-to-face. Some of the key components of verbal
communication are sound, writing, speaking,
and language.
3.2.1 Sound
At birth, most people have vocal cords, which
produce sounds. As a child grows it learns
how to form these sounds into words. Some
words may be imitative of natural sounds,
but others may come from expressions of
emotion, such as laughter or crying. Words
alone have no meaning. Only people can put
meaning into words. As meaning is
assigned to words, language develops, which
leads to the development of speaking.
The actual origin of language is subject to
considerable speculation. Some theorists
believe it is an outgrowth of group
activities such as working together or dancing. Others
believe that language developed from basic
sounds and gestures.
3.2.2 Speaking and writing.
Effective verbal communication involves the
use of both speech and writing to transmit a
message. While oral communication is more
effective in reaching a focused target
audience, as it involves interaction and
additional non-verbal cues to augment the speech,
written communication is necessary for
reaching a large number of scattered recipients.
Depending on the situation and the
requirements, people use both the spoken as well as
written channels for communication.
Through speaking we try to eliminate
misunderstanding, but sometimes this is a very
hard thing to do. Just as we assume that our
messages are clearly received, so we assume
that because something is important to us, it
is important to others. As time has proven
this is not at all true. Many problems can
arise in speaking and the only way to solve
these problems is through experience.
Speaking can be looked at in two major areas:
inter-personal and public speaking. Since
the majority of speaking is an inter-personal
process, to communicate effectively we must
not simply clean up our language, but learn
to relate to people.
In interpersonal speaking, etiquette is very
important. To be an effective communicator
one must speak in a manner that is not
offending to the receiver. Etiquette also plays an
important role in an area that has developed
in most if not all business settings:
hierarchical communication. In business
today, hierarchical communication is of utmost
importance to all members involved.
3.2.3 Listening
Some people do not pay much attention to
listening as a communication skill. Equal
importance should be given to listening and
expression. Verbal communication cannot be
effective unless the audience is good at
listening and most of its content is forgotten after
a presentation. Developing good listening
skills is essential in verbal communication.
3.3 Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is the process of
communicating through sending and
receiving wordless messages. Such messages
can be communicated through gesture,
body language or posture; facial expression
and eye contact, object communication such
as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture,
or symbols and infographics, as well as
through an aggregate of the above, such as
behavioral communication. Nonverbal
communication plays a key role in every
person's day to day life, from employment to
romantic engagements.
Speech may also contain non-verbal elements
known as paralanguage, including voice
quality, emotion and speaking style, as well
as prosodic features such as rhythm,
intonation and stress. Likewise, written
texts have non-verbal elements such as
handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
words, or the use of emotions. A portmanteau
of the English words emotion (or emote) and
icon, an emoticon is a symbol or
combination of symbols used to convey
emotional content in written or message form.
However, much of the study of non-verbal
communication has focused on face-to-face
interaction, where it can be classified into
three principal areas: environmental conditions
where communication takes place, the physical
characteristics of the communicators, and
Verbal vs oral communication
Scholars in this field usually use a strict
sense of the term “verbal“, meaning “of or
concerned with words,” and do not use “verbal
communication” as a synonym for oral or
spoken communication. Thus, vocal sounds that
are not considered to be words, such as a
grunt, or singing a wordless note, are
non-verbal. Sign languages and writing are
generally understood as forms of verbal
communication, as both make use of words —
although like speech, both may contain
paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside
non-verbal messages. Non-verbal communication
can occur through any sensory channel
3.3.1 Physical environment
Environmental factors such as furniture,
architectural style, interior decorating, lighting
conditions, colours, temperature, noise, and
music affect the behavior of communicators
during interaction. The furniture itself can
be seen as a non-verbal message
3.3.1.1 Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of how people use and
perceive the physical space around them.
The space between the sender and the receiver
of a message influences the way the
message is interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly
across cultures and different settings
within cultures. Space in non-verbal
communication may be divided into four main
categories: intimate, social, personal, and
public space. (Scott Mclean, 1969) The
distance between communicators will also
depend on sex, status, and social role.
3.3.1.2 Chronemics
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in
non-verbal communication. The way we
perceive time, structure our time and react
to time is a powerful communication tool, and
helps set the stage for communication. Time
perceptions include punctuality and
willingness to wait, the speed of speech and
how long people are willing to listen. The
timing and frequency of an action as well as
the tempo and rhythm of communications
within an interaction contributes to the
interpretation of non-verbal messages. Gudykunst
& Ting-Toomey (1988) identified 2
dominant time patterns:
· Monochronic
time schedule (M-time): Time is seen as being very important and it
is characterized by a linear pattern where
the emphasis is on the use of time
schedules and appointments. Time is viewed as
something that can be controlled
or wasted by individuals, and people tend to
do one thing at a time. The M-pattern
is typically found in North America and
Northern Europe.
· Polychronic
time schedule (P-time): Personal involvement is more important than
schedules where the emphasis lies on personal
relationships rather than keeping
appointments on time. This is the usual
pattern that is typically found in Latin
America and the Middle East.
3.3.2 Movement and body position
o Kinetics
Information about the relationship and affect
of these two skaters is communicated by
their body posture, eye gaze and physical
contact.
Kinetics is the study of body movements,
facial expressions, and gestures. It was
developed by anthropologist Ray L.
Birdwhistell in the 1950s. Kinesic behaviors
include mutual gaze, smiling, facial warmth
or pleasantness, childlike behaviors,
direct body orientation, and the like.
Birdwhistell proposed the term kineme to
describe a minimal note of visual expression,
in analogy to a phoneme which is a
minimal note of sound.
o Posture
Posture can be used to determine a
participant’s degree of attention or involvement,
the difference in status between
communicators, and the level of fondness a person
has for the other communicator. Studies
investigating the impact of posture on
interpersonal relationships suggest that
mirror-image congruent postures, where one
person’s left side is parallel to the other’s
right side, leads to favorable perception of
communicators and positive speech; a person
who displays a forward lean or a
decrease in a backwards lean also signify
positive sentiment during communication.
Posture is understood through such indicators
as direction of lean, body orientation,
arm position, and body openness.
o Gesture
A wink is a type of gesture. A gesture is a
non-vocal bodily movement intended to
express meaning. They may be articulated with
the hands, arms or body, and also
include movements of the head, face and eyes,
such as winking, nodding, or rolling
ones' eyes. The boundary between language and
gesture, or verbal and non-verbal
communication, can be hard to identify.
According to Ottenheimer (2007),
psychologists Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen
suggested that gestures could be
categorised into five types: emblems,
illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and
adaptors.
· Emblems
are gestures with direct
verbal translations, such as a goodbye wave;
· illustrators
are gestures that depict
what is said verbally, such as turning an
imaginary steering wheel while talking about
driving;
· an affect display is a gesture that conveys emotions, like a
smile;
· regulators
are gestures that control
interaction;
· and
finally, an adaptor
is a gesture that facilitates
the release of bodily tension,
such as quickly moving one's leg.
Gestures can also be categorised as either
speech-independent or speech-related. Speech independent
gestures are dependent upon culturally
accepted interpretation and have a
direct verbal translation. A wave hello or a
peace sign are examples of speech independent
gestures. Speech related gestures are used in
parallel with verbal speech; this
form of non-verbal communication is used to
emphasize the message that is being
communicated. Speech related gestures are
intended to provide supplemental information
to a verbal message such as pointing to an
object of discussion.
o Haptics
A high five is an example of communicative
touch.
Haptics is the study of touching as
non-verbal communication. Touches that can be
defined as communication include handshakes,
holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips,
hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on
the shoulder, and brushing an arm.
Touching of oneself may include licking,
picking, holding, and scratching. These
behaviors are referred to as
"adaptor" and may send messages that reveal the
intentions or feelings of a communicator. The
meaning conveyed from touch is highly
dependent upon the context of the situation,
the relationship between communicators,
and the manner of touch.
o Eye
gaze
The study of the role of eyes in non-verbal
communication is sometimes referred to as
"oculesics". Eye contact can
indicate interest, attention, and involvement. Gaze
comprises the actions of looking while
talking, looking while listening, amount of
gaze, and frequency of glances, patterns of
fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate.
3.3.3 Paralanguage
Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is
the study of non-verbal cues of the voice.
Various acoustic properties of speech such as
tone, pitch and accent, collectively known
as prosody, can all give off non-verbal cues.
Paralanguage may change the meaning of
words.
The linguist George L. Trager developed a
classification system which consists of the
voice set, voice qualities, and vocalisation.
· The
voice set is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the
situation, gender, mood, age and a person's
culture.
· The
voice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance,
nasality, and accent. They give each
individual a unique "voice print".
· Vocalization
consists of three subsections: characterisers, qualifiers and
segregates. Characterisers are emotions
expressed while speaking, such as
laughing, crying, and yawning. A voice
qualifier is the style of delivering a
message - for example, yelling "Hey stop
that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey
stop that". Vocal segregates such as
"uh-huh" notify the speaker that the listener is
listening.
3.3.4 Functions of non-verbal communication
Argyle (1970) put forward the hypothesis that
whereas spoken language is normally used
for communicating information about events
external to the speakers, non-verbal codes
are used to establish and maintain
interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite
or nicer to communicate attitudes towards
others non-verbally rather than verbally, for
instance in order to avoid embarrassing
situations
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five
primary functions of non-verbal bodily behavior
in human communication:
· Express
emotions
· Express
inter-personal attitudes
· To
accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and
listeners
· Self-presentation
of one’s personality
· Rituals
(greetings)
3.4 Interaction of verbal and non-verbal
communication
When communicating, nonverbal messages can
interact with verbal messages in six
ways: repeating, conflicting, complementing,
substituting, regulating and
accenting/moderating.
o Repeating
"Repeating" consists of using
gestures to strengthen a verbal message, such as
pointing to the object of discussion.
o Conflicting
Verbal and non-verbal messages within the
same interaction can sometimes send
opposing or conflicting messages. A person
verbally expressing a statement of truth
while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding
eye contact may convey a mixed message
to the receiver in the interaction.
Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of
reasons often stemming from feelings of
uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration.
When mixed messages occur, non-verbal
communication becomes the primary tool
people use to attain additional information
to clarify the situation; great attention is
placed on bodily movements and positioning
when people perceive mixed messages
during interactions.
o Complementing
Accurate interpretation of messages is made
easier when non-verbal and verbal
communication complements each other.
Non-verbal cues can be used to elaborate on
verbal messages to reinforce the information
sent when trying to achieve
communicative goals; messages have been shown
to be remembered better when
nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.
o Substituting
Non-verbal behavior is sometimes used as the
sole channel for communication of a
message. People learn to identify facial
expressions, body movements, and body
positioning as corresponding with specific
feelings and intentions. Non-verbal signals
can be used without verbal communication to
convey messages; when non-verbal
behavior does not effectively communicate a
message, verbal methods are used to
enhance understanding.
o Regulating
Non-verbal behavior also regulates our
conversations. For example, touching
someone's arm can signal that you want to
talk next or interrupt.
o Accenting/Moderating
Non-verbal signals are used to alter the
interpretation of verbal messages. Touch,
voice pitch, and gestures are some of the
tools people use to accent or amplify the
message that is sent; nonverbal behavior can
also be used to moderate or tone down
aspects of verbal messages as well.[26] For
example, a person who is verbally
expressing anger may accent the verbal
message by shaking a fist.
3.4.1 Dance and non-verbal communication
Dance is a form of non-verbal communication
that requires the same underlying faculty
in the brain for conceptualization,
creativity and memory as does verbal language in
speaking and writing. Means of
self-expression, both forms have vocabulary (steps and
gestures in dance), grammar (rules for
putting the vocabulary together) and meaning.
Dance, however, assembles (choreographs)
these elements in a manner that more often
resembles poetry, with its ambiguity and
multiple, symbolic and elusive meanings.
3.5 Visual communication
Visual communication as the name suggests is
communication through visual aid. It is
the conveyance of ideas and information in
forms that can be read or looked upon.
Primarily associated with two dimensional
images, it includes: signs, typography,
drawing, graphic design, illustration, colour
and electronic resources. It solely relies on
vision. It is a form of communication with
visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual
message with text has a greater power to
inform, educate or persuade a person. It is
communication by presenting information
through visual form.
The evaluation of a good visual design is
based on measuring comprehension by the
audience, not on aesthetic or artistic
preference. There are no universally agreed-upon
principles of beauty and ugliness. There
exists a variety of ways to present information
visually, like gestures, body languages,
video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation
of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et
cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term
visual presentation is used to refer to the
actual presentation of information. Recent
research in the field has focused on web
design and graphically oriented usability.
Graphic designers use methods of visual
communication in their professional practice.
3.6 Other types of communication
Other more specific types of communication
are listed below.
· Facilitated
communication.
· Graphic
communication.
· Non-violent
Communication.
· Science
communication.
· Strategic
Communication.
· Superluminal
communication.
· Technical
communication.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Communication can now be seen as a very
complex process which goes beyond speech
making. In the real sense, communication
involves a lot of others things that symbols that
can be interpreted in various forms depend on
the situation and a times the location of the
event. For instances, the meaning of a
particular gesture might be different in another
geographical location. More so, silence is
definitely a means of communication. Hence
the various forms of communication are
inexhaustible.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this note, we have been able to deal with
the major forms of communication. Thorough
differentiation of each of the forms was
discussed. Explanation of various non verbal
communications was treated. Interaction
between both verbal and non verbal
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