English Grammar

 

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Proper understanding of English grammar is a pre-requisite to an effective

communication in English language. This note begins with a search into the knowledge of

English grammar and its proper usage in business communication. We will start from the

proper understanding of parts of speech. Knowledge of punctuation and sentence

formation will be treated in the succeeding notes. Before moving further, let us examine

the objective of this note.

2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE NOTE

After studying this note, you should be able to:

· Enumerate the different parts of speech.

· Explain the meaning of lexical category.

· Discuss the functions of parts of speech in grammar.

· Describe the usage and mode of each part of speech.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 English Grammar

In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the

composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term

refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology and syntax, often

complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics.

Each language has its own distinct grammar. "English grammar" is the set of rules within

the English language itself. "An English grammar" is a specific study or analysis of these

rules. A fully explicit grammar exhaustively describing the grammatical constructions of

a language is called a descriptive grammar, as opposed to linguistic prescription, which

tries to enforce the governing rules of how a language is to be used

3.2 What are Parts of Speech?

All the words in English can be divided into 8, 9 or more groups according to their

functions in the language. These groups are traditionally called parts of speech and are

today referred to as lexical categories or word classes. The following terms comprise the

most basic grammar terminology every English user must be familiar with in order to

understand how language works to create meaning.

It is vital for any English writer to be familiar with the parts of speech in order to have

the terminology to study and analyze the language and identify mistakes in writing.

Moreover, a word can function as a different part of speech depending on its role in the

sentence structure (the terms of which are also vital for successful writing). This affects

the word's meaning and structure, making it important to confirm whether you are using

the correct part of speech in the correct position in the sentence.

3.3 Parts of Speech in the English Language

1. The Noun

A Noun is a word that names a person (teacher), thing (pencil), animal (cat), place (Paris)

or abstract idea (love). As practically anything in the universe has a name, and as there

are many things in the universe, nouns comprise the largest group of words in English

(about 65%). Nouns name common everyday objects such as pen, through to general

conditions such as friendship, all the way to the most technical terminology for the tiniest

part of a jet engine. 

 

A test for nouns: A good way to identify a noun when a word is in doubt is to ask, Can I

have it? You can have success but you can't have succeeded. This means success is a

noun and succeed is a different part of speech, in this case, a verb.

3.3.1 Types of Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such

as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless

they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole

series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the

abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun

(also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will

belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and

countable or non-countable or collective.

· Proper Nouns

You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents

the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week,

months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy

texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a

common noun. For example:

Many people dread Monday mornings.

· Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general

sense. Usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a

sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun. For example,

According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following

example.

Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times

· Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can

perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A

concrete noun is the opposite of an abstract noun. For example,

The judge handed the files to the clerk.

· Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive

through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. For

example, Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

· Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural

form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a

countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns

are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns. For example,

We painted the table red and the chairs blue.

· Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural

form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count.

A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable

nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns. For

example, We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we

moved.

· Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You

could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the

group as a whole is generally as one note. You need to be able to recognise

collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is

similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

For example:

The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

3.2.2 The Verb

A verb is a word that expresses an action (to run), occurrence (to happen), or state of

being (to appear). Verbs comprise the third largest group of words in English (about

10%) and appear in any sentence as a major mandatory element tying the subject and

predicate together. Verbs also indicate time (past, present, future) and are used with many

verb tenses. The verb can be thought of as the center, heart, or anchor of an English

sentence.

Tests for verbs: A good way to identify a verb when a word is in doubt is to ask, "Can I

do it?" I can succeed (do it) is correct but I can success is incorrect. This means succeed

is a verb and the related part of speech success is not a verb; in this case, success is a

noun.

Objects and Complements

Objects

A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning. Two kinds of

objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a

direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing "whom?" or

"what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object:

Direct Object

The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.

Direct Object

Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.

The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect object (which,

like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct

object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?,

to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object.

Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following sentences:

The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.

After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed by objects are

called intransitive verbs.

Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context:

Direct Object

I hope the Senators win the next game.

No Direct Object

Did we win?

Subject Complements

In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb

called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb is called not an

object, but a subject complement.

The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become," "seem,"

"appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound," among others. Note that

some of these are sometimes linking verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes

intransitive verbs, depending on how you use them:

Linking verb with subject complement

He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.

Linking verb with subject complement

Your home-made chili smells delicious.

Transitive verb with direct object

I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.

Intransitive verb with no object

The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.

Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist", "instructor") or an

adjective ("delicious").

Object Complements

An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that (obviously) it

modifies an object rather than a subject. Consider this example of a subject complement:

The driver seems tired.

In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun "driver," which is

the subject of the sentence.

Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example:

I consider the driver tired.

In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but the adjective

"tired" is still acting as its complement.

In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing something can

cause their direct objects to take an object complement:

3.3.3 The Adjective

An adjective is a word that modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives comprise

the second largest group of words in English (about 23%). An adjective informs about the

qualities and features of people, things or concepts (big, strong, beautiful, and sensitive)

and can be considered as an added intensifier or even "decoration" to the required basic

sentence elements, adding variety and liveliness. Adjectives can also be expanded into

adjective clauses, which function similarly. In the following examples, the adjectives are

underlined and the nouns or pronouns they modify are in bold.

He was happy when he moved to his new house.

[the adjective happy modifies the pronoun he, the adjective new modifies the noun house]

A test for adjectives: A good way to identify an adjective when a word is in doubt is to

ask about the modified noun, what kind of (noun) is it? He is a successful businessman

is correct, as successful answers what kind of businessman is he? He is a successfully

businessman is incorrect as successfully answers "How" and not "What kind of". This

means successful is an adjective and successfully is a different part of speech, in this

case, an adverb.

Using the Comparative and Superlative

You should use the comparative form of an adjective or adverb to compare exactly two

things. You can form the comparative by adding the suffix "-er" to the modifier (for some

short words) or by using the word "more" with the modifier:

Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city will select the more

experimental one. (Comparing two designs)

Now that it is March, the days are getting longer (longer now than before).

You should use the superlative form to compare three or more things. You can form the

superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using

the word "most" with the modifier:

This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, most imaginative comic strip I have ever

seen. (implying that I have seen more than two)

3.3.3.1 Types of adjectives

· Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar

or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and

modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the

noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive

pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

What is your phone number?

Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone

number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement.

Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a

noun phrase.

· Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are

identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify

nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:

When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and

the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."

This apartment needs to be fumigated.

Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the

subject of the sentence.

Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative

pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a

possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an

interrogative pronoun.

· Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun,

except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see

also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):

Which plants should be watered twice a week?

Like other adjectives, "which” can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase? In

this example, "which” modifies “plants” and the noun phrase “which plants” is

the subject of the compound verb “should be watered”?

What book are you reading?

In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the

direct object of the compound verb "are reading."

· Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies

a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase

"many people" is the subject of the sentence.

I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any

mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."

3.3.4 The Adverb

An adverb is a type of word that has many uses in English. It can modify (describe) a

verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence (composed from at least an

independent clause). Adverbs (quickly, here, now, always, very, obviously) can be

considered as added intensifiers or even "decoration" to the required basic sentence

elements, supplementing them with important pieces of information. Adverbs also appear

in multi-word phrases and can also be expanded into adverbial clauses which function

similarly. In the following examples, the adverbs are underlined and the elements they

modify are in bold.

The new typist works quickly and well.

[The adverbs quickly and well modify the verb works]

The new typist is extremely busy.

[The adverb extremely modifies the adjective busy]

The new typist works very quickly.

[The adverb very modifies the adverb quickly]

Fortunately, the new typist works well.

[the adverb fortunately modifies the sentence the new typist works well]

As adverbs add several kinds of information, they can be divided into the following

groups of types, each answering the below mentioned questions:

 

 A test for adverbs: A good way to identify an adverb when a word or phrase is in doubt

is to ask one of the questions presented in bold in the adverb type table above. If the word

or phrase answers the question, then it functions as an adverb.

· Conjunctive Adverbs

You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most

common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore,"

"hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile,"

"nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus."

A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the

aid of a semicolon. For examples:

o The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been

increased.

o He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to

make something else.

3.3.5 The Interjection

An interjection is a word or expression that conveys a strong emotion, such as surprise,

joy or disgust. It usually appears in dialogues and informal writing settings, as more

formal writing settings, such as academia or business warrant an objective formal writing

style. Interjections are usually used with an exclamation point (!) or set off with comma.

Wow! What a game!

Oh, I forgot all about the game last night.

3.3.6 The Determiner

A determiner is a word that accompanies a noun or noun phrase and determines whether

it is general or specific, its quantity, who it belongs to and more. Determiners are divided

into the following groups:

3.3.7 The Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that has replaces a noun or refers to it. Pronouns are divided into

the following groups.

3.3.8 The Preposition

A preposition is a word that conveys relationships between other words, usually in time,

place or direction. Prepositions are an integral part of many expressions with verbs and

adjectives, and also of idioms. They should always be learned together with the

expression they are part of, as their use cannot always be predicted. A prepositional

phrase contains the preposition and the words it modifies.

3.3.9 The Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that connects other words, phrases and clauses reflecting some

kind of logical relationship between the connected elements (addition, illustration, cause,

effect, contrast etc.). Conjunctions connecting two elements of equal weight are

coordinating conjunctions, and those which introduce dependent clauses are

subordinating conjunctions.

4.0 CONCLUSION

As this brief explanation shows, parts of speech are the basic building blocks of the

English language. If you know the basics, you will be able to understand your writing and

develop it further. While we can all be expected to know the rules of English grammar,

careful study of the parts of speech can ensure that our use of sentence structure and other

grammar points is always correct.

5.0 SUMMARY

This note has mainly dealt with the meaning of grammar and part of speech. Various

guiding examples were given to broaden your understanding. This note will greatly help

to reduce common mistakes that have hitherto messed up your grammar.

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