Sentence Formation

 

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This is the final part of the study of English grammar. This note deals with sentence

formation and its usage. Sentence is the building block of a proper composition.

Therefore its knowledge will go a long way in determining how good a composition will

be. Because of its importance to achieving a desirable communication process, the note

will start with explanations on phrase, clause and the sentence. Various examples will be

given to back the explanations up

2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE NOTE

On completion of this note, you should be able to:

· Discuss what is meant by phrase, clause and sentence.

· Describe the functions of phrase, clause and sentence.

· Explain different structures of sentences.

· Write logical and coherent paragraphs.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Phrases

A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a subject and

predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words with a subject and predicate is called

a clause.

The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words have no

grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay the across" is not a

phrase.

In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases. The group "both

teachers and students" and the group "across the bay" are both phrases.

You use a phrase to add information to a sentence and can perform the functions of a

subject, an object, a subject or object complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase:

She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.

Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

3.1.1 The Function Of Phrases

A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.

· Verb Phrases

A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects, and any

adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen to modify it. The

predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase:

Chinwe is trying to decide whether she wants to go to a medical school

or to go to a law school.

He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he

decided to make something else.

After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.

We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

· Noun Phrases

A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated modifiers,

including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, and other nouns in the

possessive case.

Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or verbal,

as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition, as in the

following examples:

Subject

Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

Object of a verb

To read quickly and accurately is Seyi's goal.

· Adjective Phrases

An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun. You often

construct adjective phrases using participles or prepositions together with their

objects:

I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbour's constant piano

practising.   

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbour's constant piano

practising" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "sound."

· Adverb Phrases

A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an adverb,

as in the following sentences.

She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an adverb

modifying the verb "went."

3.2 Clauses

A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including a predicate and a

subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). A collection of grammatically-related

words without a subject or without a predicate is called a phrase.

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one or more

clauses. This chapter will help you to recognize and (more importantly) to use different

types of clauses in your own writing.

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs

If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as in the following

example:

Independent

The President is in Lokoja.

Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they are dependent

clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating

conjunction "because" added to the beginning:

Dependent

When the President is in Lokoja

In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the conjunction "because"

suggests that the clause is providing an explanation for something else. Since this

dependent clause answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it is called a

dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always

dependent clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the

following examples:

adverb

The committee will meet tomorrow.

adverb clause

The committee will meet when the President is in Lokoja

.

Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for adjectives.

Noun Clauses

A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or

phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a

preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the following

examples:

noun

I know Latin.

noun clause

I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.

In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb "know." In the

second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.

In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:

noun

Their destination is unknown.

noun clause

Where they are going is unknown.

The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in the word order, becomes a

noun clause when used as part of a larger note -- like the noun "destination," the clause is

the subject of the verb "is."

Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in

another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or

pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or "what kind of?" Consider the following

examples:

Adjective

the red coat

Adjective clause

the coat which I bought yesterday

Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I bought yesterday"

in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually

comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.

In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns "who(m)," "that,"

or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it

is not the subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the relative

pronoun in formal, academic writing:

informal

The books people read were mainly religious.

formal

The books that people read were mainly religious.

Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adverb in another

clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?", "where?",

"why?", "with what goal/result?", and "under what conditions?".

Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:

adverb

The Governor gave a speech here.

adverb clause

The Governor gave a speech where the workers were striking.

Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever)," "where(ever),"

"since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause. Note that a dependent

adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence:

independent clause

they left the locker room.

dependent adverb clause

after they left the locker room.

The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second cannot -- the reader

will ask what happened "after they left the locker room". Here are some more examples

of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

cause

Isah wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered Isah 's father.

The adverb clause answers the question "why?"

effect

Isah wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would be avenged.

The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result?"

time

After Isah's uncle Emeka married Isah's mother, Isah wanted to kill him.

The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the change in word order -- an

adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part of the sentence.

place

Where the whole Ikoyi court was assembled, Isah ordered a play in an attempt

to prove his uncle's guilt.

The adverb clause answers the question "where?".

condition

If the Libya co-operate, the Africans may achieve monetary union.

The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?"

Recognizing Clauses

Consider these examples:

clause

cows eat grass

This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the predicate "eat

grass."

phrase

cows eating grass

What about "cows eating grass"? This noun phrase could be a subject, but it has no

predicate attached to it: the adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer is

referring to, but there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in the

first place.

clause

cows eating grass are visible from the highway

This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the predicate "are

visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.

clause

Run!

This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to have a subject.

With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the subject, since it is obviously the

person or people you are talking to: in other words, the clause really reads "[You] run!".

You should not usually use direct commands in your essays, except in quotations.

3.3 Sentence

In linguistics, a sentence is an expression in natural language—a grammatical and lexical

note consisting of one or more words, representing distinct and differentiated concepts,

and combined to form a meaningful statement, question, request, command, etc.

As with all language expressions, sentences contain both semantic and logical elements

(words, parts of speech), and also include action symbols that indicate sentence starts,

stops, pauses, etc. In addition, sentences also contain properties distinct to natural

language, such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns.

Classification

By structure

One traditional scheme for classifying English sentences is by the number and types of

finite clauses:

· A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent

clauses.

· A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent

clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or

both.

· A complex sentence consists of one or more independent clauses with at least one

dependent clause.

· A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence) consists of

multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent

clause.

By purpose

Sentences can also be classified based on their purpose.

· A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a

statement: I am going home.

· A negative sentence or negation denies that a statement is true: I am not going

home.

· An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information —

when are you going to work? — but sometimes not; see rhetorical question.

· An exclamatory sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of

statement: What a wonderful day this is!

· An imperative sentence or command tells someone to do something: Go to work

at 7:30 tomorrow morning.

3.3.1 The Structure of a Sentence.

Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple sentence

contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a

compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses.

1. The Simple Sentence

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause.

A simple sentence can be as short as one word:

Run!

Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject

and the predicate may have modifiers. The following are simple sentences, because each

contains only one clause:

Melt!

Ice melts.

The ice melts quickly.

As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can

tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its

length.

The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which

children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken

language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for

grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them

with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.

When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them

to the surrounding sentences.

2. The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences)

joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":

Simple

Canada is a rich country.

Simple

Still, it has many poor people.

Compound

Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.

Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use

them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to

interrupt):

Today at school Mr. Oseka brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the class,

and I got to pet it, and Funke held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate part

of my carrot at lunch, and ...

Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences in written

work, your writing might seem immature.

A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or

contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information:

Abuja has better clubs, but Lagos has better cinemas.

3. The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are

not equal. Consider the following examples:

Simple

My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

Compound

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

Complex

Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.

In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to a

party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single

sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as

independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most

important. In the third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first

clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a

dependent clause.

A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence

because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write

My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

or even

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to

you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the

first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less

important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.

Subject and Predicate

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is

what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the

subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the

subject is highlighted.

Nana {runs}.

Nana and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.

To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by

placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.

The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.

The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did.

"The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the

verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered

the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn."

Unusual Sentences

Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from

conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather

than expressed.

Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such

sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon

follow.

There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.

If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray

kittens," the correct subject

.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the

words that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example:

A piece of meat pie would satisfy his hunger.

The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject -- "a"

and "of meat pie " -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.

Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always the verb or

verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple

predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the sentence.

A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of more than

one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:

Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's

bedroom walls.

3.4 Writing Paragraphs

A thesis is a single, focused argument, and most paragraphs prove or demonstrate a

thesis through explanations, examples and concrete details. This chapter will help you

learn how to write and analyze the types of paragraphs common in academic essays.

Dividing your Argument

Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are beginning a new thought

or taking up a new point. Since your outline will help you divide the essay into sections,

the resulting paragraphs must correspond to the logical divisions in the essay. If your

paragraphs are too long, divide your material into smaller, more manageable notes; if

they're too short, find broader topic sentences that will allow you to combine some of

your ideas.

Look at the list of sentences below:

In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of time to

clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all surfaces and clean all

toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of dirt disappears.

Some eat or pace while they work.

Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully.

Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or at computer

screens.

If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the

classroom, the lab or the library.

The kitchen and the bedroom function as study spaces.

Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can

work successfully.

Being sedentary seems to inspire others.

Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do

their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets.

Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not

rise until their task is completed.

82

Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything

without much dust and heat.

Were these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing but a long list of facts,

not obviously related to one another, except that they all refer to students and the way we

study. There is too much information here to include in one paragraph. The solution is to

develop two topic sentences under which all (or most) of the above information will fit.

For most students the process of studying involves establishing a complex set of

rituals which come to be repeated, with little variation, every time a task is

assigned by a professor.

If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a unified but general

description of the types of "rituals" or study patterns which are such an important part of

academic life.

For most students the process of studying involves establishing a complex set of

rituals which come to be repeated, with little variation, every time a task is

assigned by a professor. In preparation for study some students apportion a

negligible period of time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub

all surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of

dirt disappears. Some eat or pace while they work. Some work with deep

concentration, others more fitfully. Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or

stare blankly at walls or at computer screens.

The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the distribution of individual

time, space and effort, and relate the rituals involved in study to those less commonly

associated with school. A topic sentence might look something like this:

Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-work-specific environments,

activities, and schedules. If asked what space is reserved for learning, many

students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library. What about the

kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies

becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people need

to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully.

Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled

between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises,

some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very

few can sit and not rise until their task is completed. Some students work quickly

and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.

Some organizations and a couple of topic sentences have transformed a long and

undifferentiated listing of student activities into two unified paragraphs with a logical

division between them.

3.4.1 Writing Topic Sentences

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or Organizes an entire

paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in most of your major paragraphs.

Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they

often appear at the beginning.

It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two directions

simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay's thesis, and thereby acts as a

signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it also defines the scope of the

paragraph itself. For example, consider the following topic sentence:

Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called

"forget sauce" to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the paragraph

must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on the menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the composition

of "forget sauce."

In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients are never

listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to secret

fast-food industry practices.

"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia in

consumers.

Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:

After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any nutritional

value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a disagreeable

experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes effect, and

they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no wiser.

Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic sentence, that

many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget

sauce" to their foods.

3.4.2 Analyzing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic

sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the

essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the

case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph

which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a

point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic sentence

itself:

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the sentences

that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis

statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the

unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements and topic

sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus for the writing which

follows.

Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a

claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some

way.

Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding it, I expand

on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related to the sentences that

follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act rather like

tiny thesis statements.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Owing to the importance of sentence formation in English communication, this note has

thoroughly explained the various building blocks towards sentence formation. Therefore

it is expected that communication knowledge in English language will be a lot more

85

explicit. The right combination and positioning of words should be achieved towards

getting to grammatically correct sentences.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this note, the following topics were explained

· Phrase and its composition

· Clause and its composition

· Sentence formation

· Paragraph and its formation

<<<Previous Note

View Course Content

Next Note>>>